Nov 13, 2014 Do you want to share a Python script to a friend that doesn’t have Python installed? In this post you’ll learn how ? With the py2app package you can compile a Python script and create a portable Mac application. If you’re using windows, you can check py2exe. First of all, we need to install the py2app python. For most Unix systems, you must download and compile the source code. The same source code archive can also be used to build the Windows and Mac versions, and is the starting point for ports to all other platforms. Download the latest Python 3 and Python 2 source.
Python Software Foundation. The mission of the Python Software Foundation is to promote, protect, and advance the Python programming language, and to support and facilitate the growth of a diverse and international community of Python programmers. Become a Member Donate to the PSF. This creates a script.app in the dist folder. Make sure to use GUI packages in your Python code, like PyQt or PySide, to control the graphical parts of the app. There are several options in script.spec related to Mac OS X app bundles here. For example, to specify an icon for the app.
About Mac Scripting
Scripting allows you to automate complex, repetitive, and time-consuming tasks by writing scripts that interact with apps, processes, and the operating system. A script consists of a series of statements, each of which performs a specific operation. These statements work together to automate tasks. Through scripting, you can create powerful workflow solutions that enhance productivity, reduce errors, save time, and save money.
There are many different scripting languages. On the Mac, the primary ones used for automation are AppleScript and JavaScript.
Note
OS X also includes Automator, an app for building workflows that run prebuilt, configurable actions to perform tasks in apps and throughout the operating system. Automator doesn’t require you to write any code, but can be extended through scripting. Because Automator uses preconceived actions and operates in a linear manner, it’s more limited in functionality than scripting. Automator is great for performing simple tasks involving a small number of sequential steps or apps. Scripting is a better choice for performing advanced, branching, or complex tasks.
Python and Perl are other examples of scripting languages.
AppleScript
AppleScript is a mature scripting language developed by Apple. It’s relatively easy to learn in relation to other scripting and programming languages, has been around since System 7.1, and has been widely adopted in both enterprise and personal workflows. While the AppleScript scripting language uses an English-like terminology which may appear simple, it is a rich, object-oriented language, capable of performing complicated programming tasks.
The core fundamentals of AppleScript are described in AppleScript Language Guide, as well as in numerous third-party books.
JavaScript
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JavaScript is a popular cross-platform scripting language. Historically, it’s been most commonly used to implement features on websites and in web-based apps that are accessed through browsers. However, some apps implement JavaScript-based scripting models for the purpose of automation. In OS X 10.10, JavaScript became a peer to AppleScript in OS X. There are many third-party websites and books that document the JavaScript language.
For fundamentals on JavaScript as a scripting language for automation in OS X, see JavaScript for Automation Release Notes. For information about the JavaScript language, see Mozilla’s official JavaScript documentation.
Copyright © 2018 Apple Inc. All rights reserved. Terms of Use | Privacy Policy | Updated: 2016-06-13
-->This article is an introduction to developing Azure Functions using Python. The content below assumes that you've already read the Azure Functions developers guide.
For standalone Function sample projects in Python, see the Python Functions samples.
Programming model
Azure Functions expects a function to be a stateless method in your Python script that processes input and produces output. By default, the runtime expects the method to be implemented as a global method called
main()
in the __init__.py
file. You can also specify an alternate entry point.Data from triggers and bindings is bound to the function via method attributes using the
name
property defined in the function.json file. For example, the function.json below describes a simple function triggered by an HTTP request named req
:Based on this definition, the
__init__.py
file that contains the function code might look like the following example:You can also explicitly declare the attribute types and return type in the function using Python type annotations. This helps you use the intellisense and autocomplete features provided by many Python code editors.
Use the Python annotations included in the azure.functions.* package to bind input and outputs to your methods.
Alternate entry point
You can change the default behavior of a function by optionally specifying the
scriptFile
and entryPoint
properties in the function.json file. For example, the function.json below tells the runtime to use the customentry()
method in the main.py file, as the entry point for your Azure Function.Folder structure
The recommended folder structure for a Python Functions project looks like the following example:
The main project folder (__app__) can contain the following files:
- local.settings.json: Used to store app settings and connection strings when running locally. This file doesn't get published to Azure. To learn more, see local.settings.file.
- requirements.txt: Contains the list of packages the system installs when publishing to Azure.
- host.json: Contains global configuration options that affect all functions in a function app. This file does get published to Azure. Not all options are supported when running locally. To learn more, see host.json.
- .funcignore: (Optional) declares files that shouldn't get published to Azure.
- .gitignore: (Optional) declares files that are excluded from a git repo, such as local.settings.json.
- Dockerfile: (Optional) used when publishing your project in a custom container.
Each function has its own code file and binding configuration file (function.json).
When deploying your project to a function app in Azure, the entire contents of the main project (__app__) folder should be included in the package, but not the folder itself. We recommend that you maintain your tests in a folder separate from the project folder, in this example
tests
. This keeps you from deploying test code with your app. For more information, see Unit Testing.Import behavior
You can import modules in your function code using both explicit relative and absolute references. Based on the folder structure shown above, the following imports work from within the function file __app__my_first_function__init__.py:
The following imports don't work from within the same file:
Shared code should be kept in a separate folder in __app__. To reference modules in the shared_code folder, you can use the following syntax:
Triggers and Inputs
Inputs are divided into two categories in Azure Functions: trigger input and additional input. Although they are different in the
function.json
file, usage is identical in Python code. Connection strings or secrets for trigger and input sources map to values in the local.settings.json
file when running locally, and the application settings when running in Azure.For example, the following code demonstrates the difference between the two:
When the function is invoked, the HTTP request is passed to the function as
req
. An entry will be retrieved from the Azure Blob Storage based on the ID in the route URL and made available as obj
in the function body. Here, the storage account specified is the connection string found in the AzureWebJobsStorage app setting, which is the same storage account used by the function app.Outputs
Output can be expressed both in return value and output parameters. If there's only one output, we recommend using the return value. For multiple outputs, you'll have to use output parameters.
To use the return value of a function as the value of an output binding, the
name
property of the binding should be set to $return
in function.json
.To produce multiple outputs, use the
set()
method provided by the azure.functions.Out
interface to assign a value to the binding. For example, the following function can push a message to a queue and also return an HTTP response.![App App](/uploads/1/2/6/3/126342213/518096101.png)
Logging
Access to the Azure Functions runtime logger is available via a root
logging
handler in your function app. This logger is tied to Application Insights and allows you to flag warnings and errors encountered during the function execution.The following example logs an info message when the function is invoked via an HTTP trigger.
Additional logging methods are available that let you write to the console at different trace levels:
Method | Description |
---|---|
critical(_message_) | Writes a message with level CRITICAL on the root logger. |
error(_message_) | Writes a message with level ERROR on the root logger. |
warning(_message_) | Writes a message with level WARNING on the root logger. |
info(_message_) | Writes a message with level INFO on the root logger. |
debug(_message_) | Writes a message with level DEBUG on the root logger. |
To learn more about logging, see Monitor Azure Functions.
HTTP Trigger and bindings
The HTTP trigger is defined in the function.json file. The
name
of the binding must match the named parameter in the function.In the previous examples, a binding name req
is used. This parameter is an HttpRequest object, and an HttpResponse object is returned.From the HttpRequest object, you can get request headers, query parameters, route parameters, and the message body.
The following example is from the HTTP trigger template for Python.
In this function, the value of the
name
query parameter is obtained from the params
parameter of the HttpRequest object. The JSON-encoded message body is read using the get_json
method.Likewise, you can set the
status_code
and headers
for the response message in the returned HttpResponse object.Scaling and concurrency
By default, Azure Functions automatically monitors the load on your application and creates additional host instances for Python as needed. Functions uses built-in (not user configurable) thresholds for different trigger types to decide when to add instances, such as the age of messages and queue size for QueueTrigger. For more information, see How the Consumption and Premium plans work.
This scaling behavior is sufficient for many applications. Applications with any of the following characteristics, however, may not scale as effectively:
- The application needs to handle many concurrent invocations.
- The application processes a large number of I/O events.
- The application is I/O bound.
In such cases, you can improve performance further by employing async patterns and by using multiple language worker processes.
Async
Because Python is a single-threaded runtime, a host instance for Python can process only one function invocation at a time. For applications that process a large number of I/O events and/or is I/O bound, you can improve performance by running functions asynchronously.
To run a function asynchronously, use the
async def
statement, which runs the function with asyncio directly:A function without the
async
keyword is run automatically in an asyncio thread-pool:Use multiple language worker processes
By default, every Functions host instance has a single language worker process. You can increase the number of worker processes per host (up to 10) by using the FUNCTIONS_WORKER_PROCESS_COUNT application setting. Azure Functions then tries to evenly distribute simultaneous function invocations across these workers.
The FUNCTIONS_WORKER_PROCESS_COUNT applies to each host that Functions creates when scaling out your application to meet demand.
Context
To get the invocation context of a function during execution, include the
context
argument in its signature.Best check printing software for mac. For example:
The Context class has the following string attributes:
function_directory
The directory in which the function is running.![App App](/uploads/1/2/6/3/126342213/428209521.png)
function_name
Name of the function.invocation_id
ID of the current function invocation.Python Script To Mac App Free
Global variables
It is not guaranteed that the state of your app will be preserved for future executions. However, the Azure Functions runtime often reuses the same process for multiple executions of the same app. In order to cache the results of an expensive computation, declare it as a global variable.
Environment variables
In Functions, application settings, such as service connection strings, are exposed as environment variables during execution. You can access these settings by declaring
import os
and then using, setting = os.environ['setting-name']
.Best google voice app for mac. The following example gets the application setting, with the key named
myAppSetting
:For local development, application settings are maintained in the local.settings.json file.
Python version
Azure Functions supports the following Python versions:
Functions version | Python* versions |
---|---|
3.x | 3.8 3.7 3.6 |
2.x | 3.7 3.6 |
*Official CPython distributions
To request a specific Python version when you create your function app in Azure, use the
--runtime-version
option of the az functionapp create
command. The Functions runtime version is set by the --functions-version
option. The Python version is set when the function app is created and can't be changed.When running locally, the runtime uses the available Python version.
Package management
When developing locally using the Azure Functions Core Tools or Visual Studio Code, add the names and versions of the required packages to the
requirements.txt
file and install them using pip
.For example, the following requirements file and pip command can be used to install the
requests
package from PyPI.Python Mac Download
Publishing to Azure
When you're ready to publish, make sure that all your publicly available dependencies are listed in the requirements.txt file, which is located at the root of your project directory.
Project files and folders that are excluded from publishing, including the virtual environment folder, are listed in the .funcignore file.
There are three build actions supported for publishing your Python project to Azure: remote build, local build, and builds using custom dependencies.
You can also use Azure Pipelines to build your dependencies and publish using continuous delivery (CD). To learn more, see Continuous delivery by using Azure DevOps.
Remote build
When using remote build, dependencies restored on the server and native dependencies match the production environment. This results in a smaller deployment package to upload. Use remote build when developing Python apps on Windows. If your project has custom dependencies, you can use remote build with extra index URL.
Dependencies are obtained remotely based on the contents of the requirements.txt file. Remote build is the recommended build method. By default, the Azure Functions Core Tools requests a remote build when you use the following func azure functionapp publish command to publish your Python project to Azure.
Remember to replace
<APP_NAME>
with the name of your function app in Azure.The Azure Functions Extension for Visual Studio Code also requests a remote build by default.
Local build
Dependencies are obtained locally based on the contents of the requirements.txt file. You can prevent doing a remote build by using the following func azure functionapp publish command to publish with a local build.
Remember to replace
<APP_NAME>
with the name of your function app in Azure.Using the
--build local
option, project dependencies are read from the requirements.txt file and those dependent packages are downloaded and installed locally. Project files and dependencies are deployed from your local computer to Azure. This results in a larger deployment package being uploaded to Azure. If for some reason, dependencies in your requirements.txt file can't be acquired by Core Tools, you must use the custom dependencies option for publishing.We don't recommend using local builds when developing locally on Windows.
Custom dependencies
When your project has dependencies not found in the Python Package Index, there are two ways to build the project. The build method depends on how you build the project.
Remote build with extra index URL
When your packages are available from an accessible custom package index, use a remote build. Before publishing, make sure to create an app setting named
PIP_EXTRA_INDEX_URL
. The value for this setting is the URL of your custom package index. Using this setting tells the remote build to run pip install
using the --extra-index-url
option. To learn more, see the Python pip install documentation.You can also use basic authentication credentials with your extra package index URLs. To learn more, see Basic authentication credentials in Python documentation.
Install local packages
If your project uses packages not publicly available to our tools, you can make them available to your app by putting them in the __app__/.python_packages directory. Before publishing, run the following command to install the dependencies locally:
When using custom dependencies, you should use the
--no-build
publishing option, since you have already installed the dependencies into the project folder.Remember to replace
<APP_NAME>
with the name of your function app in Azure.Unit Testing
Functions written in Python can be tested like other Python code using standard testing frameworks. For most bindings, it's possible to create a mock input object by creating an instance of an appropriate class from the
azure.functions
package. Since the azure.functions
package is not immediately available, be sure to install it via your requirements.txt
file as described in the package management section above.For example, following is a mock test of an HTTP triggered function:
Here is another example, with a queue triggered function:
Temporary files
The
tempfile.gettempdir()
method returns a temporary folder, which on Linux is /tmp
. Your application can use this directory to store temporary files generated and used by your functions during execution.Important
Files written to the temporary directory aren't guaranteed to persist across invocations. During scale out, temporary files aren't shared between instances.
The following example creates a named temporary file in the temporary directory (
/tmp
):We recommend that you maintain your tests in a folder separate from the project folder. This keeps you from deploying test code with your app.
Preinstalled libraries
There are a few libraries come with the Python Functions runtime.
Python Standard Library
The Python Standard Library contain a list of built-in Python modules that are shipped with each Python distribution. Most of these libraries help you access system functionality, like file I/O. On Windows systems, these libraries are installed with Python. On the Unix-based systems, they are provided by package collections.
To view the full details of the list of these libraries, please visit the links below:
Azure Functions Python worker dependencies
The Functions Python worker requires a specific set of libraries. You can also use these libraries in your functions, but they aren't a part of the Python standard. If your functions rely on any of these libraries, they may not be available to your code when running outside of Azure Functions. You can find a detailed list of dependencies in the install_requires section in the setup.py file.
Azure Functions Python library
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Every Python worker update includes a new version of Azure Functions Python library (azure.functions). This approach makes it easier to continuously update your Python function apps, because each update is backwards-compatible. A list of releases of this library can be found in azure-functions PyPi.
The runtime library version is fixed by Azure, and it can't be overridden by requirements.txt. The
azure-functions
entry in requirements.txt is only for linting and customer awareness.Use the following code to track the actual version of the Python Functions library in your runtime:
Runtime system libraries
For a list of preinstalled system libraries in Python worker Docker images, please follow the links below:
Functions runtime | Debian version | Python versions |
---|---|---|
Version 2.x | Stretch | Python 3.6 Python 3.7 |
Version 3.x | Buster | Python 3.6 Python 3.7 Python 3.8 |
Cross-origin resource sharing
Azure Functions supports cross-origin resource sharing (CORS). CORS is configured in the portal and through the Azure CLI. The CORS allowed origins list applies at the function app level. With CORS enabled, responses include the
Access-Control-Allow-Origin
header. For more information, see Cross-origin resource sharing.CORS is fully supported for Python function apps. https://sitebro922.weebly.com/free-digitizing-embroidery-software-for-mac.html.
Known issues and FAQ
Following is a list of troubleshooting guides for common issues:
All known issues and feature requests are tracked using GitHub issues list. If you run into a problem and can't find the issue in GitHub, open a new issue and include a detailed description of the problem.
Next steps
For more information, see the following resources: